SL provides security measures to support data sovereignty, security, and confidentiality (Extended Data Fig. & Rehm, H. L. Building the foundation for genomics in precision medicine. b, Accuracy, sensitivity, specificity and F1 score over 50 permutations for scenario in a with a 22:25 case:control ratio. Investigators were not blinded to allocation during experiments and outcome assessment. All metrics are listed in Supplementary Tables 3, 4. Other than that, no filtering of transcripts was performed. Nat. Federated learning also works on a similar principle. Performance measures are defined for the independent fourth node used for testing only. With the advancement of Machine Learning, since its beginning and over the last years, a special attention has been given to the Artificial Neural Network. e, Schematic of the Swarm network, consisting of Swarm edge nodes that exchange parameters for learning, which is implemented using blockchain technology. Statistical differences between results derived by SL and all individual nodes including all permutations performed were calculated with one-sided Wilcoxon signed rank test with continuity correction; *P<0.05, exact P values listed in Supplementary Table 5. together and then reaching the optimized solution for a given problem. The algorithm is tested in the data set collected concerning rice pests, later analyzed and compared in detail with other existing . Centre dot, mean; box limits, 1st and 3rd quartiles; whiskers, minimum and maximum values. 2, 293294 (2020). 1i, Supplementary Information). Each node consists of the blockchain, including the ledger and smart contract, as well as the SLL with the API to interact with other nodes within the network. [2] The inspiration often comes from nature, especially biological systems. b, c, Boxplots show performance of all permutations performed for the training nodes individually as well as the results obtained by SL. g, Scenario with three consortia contributing training nodes and a fourth one providing the testing node. 1a). To address this task, a multi-swarm hybrid optimization approach has been proposed, based on three swarm intelligence meta-heuristics, namely . Warnat-Herresthal, S. et al. [citation needed]. You are using a browser version with limited support for CSS. The network amplifies intelligence with real-time systems with feedback loops that are interconnected. It is especially useful if we apply the algorithm to train a neural network. information security, machine learning, planning and operations in industrial systems, transportation systems, and other systems, power system, Scheduling and timetabling, supply-chain management, wireless sensor networks, and all other . [58] have successfully used two swarm intelligence algorithmsone mimicking the behaviour of one species of ants (Leptothorax acervorum) foraging (stochastic diffusion search, SDS) and the other algorithm mimicking the behaviour of birds flocking (particle swarm optimization, PSO)to describe a novel integration strategy exploiting the local search properties of the PSO with global SDS behaviour. Statistical differences between results derived by SL and all individual nodes including all permutations performed were calculated with one-sided Wilcoxon signed rank test with continuity correction; *P<0.05, exact P values listed in Supplementary Table 5. The study showed a 23% increase in diagnostic accuracy when using Artificial Swarm Intelligence (ASI) technology compared to majority voting. Three testing sets with different prevalences were simulated. b, c, Test accuracy for evaluation of dataset A2 over 100 permutations. was supported by an ERC Advanced Grant (833247) and a Spinoza Grant of the Netherlands Organization for Scientific Research. Publishers note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. It has been shown that the SDS can be applied to identify suitable solutions even for large problem instances. Dermatologist-level classification of skin cancer with deep neural networks. Differences in performance metrics were tested using the one-sided Wilcoxon signed rank test with continuity correction. As mentioned in the original paper, sociobiologists believe a school of . This was done separately for datasets B, D, and E. As some of the samples were prepared with poly-A selection to enrich for protein-coding mRNAs, we filtered the complete dataset for protein-coding genes to ensure greater comparability across library preparation protocols. Chaussabel, D. Assessment of immune status using blood transcriptomics and potential implications for global health. 4jk, Supplementary Table 7, Supplementary Information). ". Centre dot, mean; box limits, 1st and 3rd quartiles; whiskers, minimum and maximum values. All samples are biological replicates. Previous article Particle Swarm Optimization - An Overview talked about inspiration of particle swarm optimization (PSO) , it's mathematical modelling and algorithm. was further supported by the BMBF-funded excellence project DietBodyBrain (DietBB) (grant 01EA1809A), and J.L.S. Abhishek Kumar gained his PhD in computer science from the University of Madras, India in 2019. 9 Scenario with reduced prevalence in training and test datasets and multi-centre scenario at a four-node setting. McCall, B. To obtain IRVINE, Calif., March 14, 2023 /PRNewswire/ -- SWARM Engineering is proud to announce AVA, the first AgriFood Virtual Advisor, an AI-powered digital assistant based on . Statistical differences between results derived by SL and all individual nodes including all permutations performed were calculated with one-sided Wilcoxon signed rank test with continuity correction; *P<0.05, exact P values listed in Supplementary Table 5. UAV Cooperation and Control; Machine Learning; Data Mining; and Other Applications. g, Scenario with each training node having a different prevalence. S.K. The main advantage of such an approach over other global minimization strategies such as simulated annealing is that the large number of members that make up the particle swarm make the technique impressively resilient to the problem of local minima. . In brief, the neural network consists of one input layer, eight hidden layers and one output layer. Main settings as in Fig. j, Scenario similar to g but where the nodes use datasets from different RNA-seq protocols. [27][28], Ant colony optimization (ACO), introduced by Dorigo in his doctoral dissertation, is a class of optimization algorithms modeled on the actions of an ant colony. [4], Boids is an artificial life program, developed by Craig Reynolds in 1986, which simulates flocking was published in 1987 in the proceedings of the ACM SIGGRAPH conference. Advancing medicine with AI at the edge Nowadays, the high-dimensionality of data causes a . At the same time, we need to consider important standards relating to data privacy and protection, such as Convention 108+ of the Council of Europe17. Reinforcement of the route in the forwards, reverse direction and both simultaneously have been researched: backwards reinforcement requires a symmetric network and couples the two directions together; forwards reinforcement rewards a route before the outcome is known (but then one would pay for the cinema before one knows how good the film is). Researchers at Hewlett Packard Labs dive into swarm learning and how a distributed model can improve the use of machine learning and artificial intelligence in the analysis of the ever-growing mountain of data scattered across your enterprise. Schulte-Schrepping, J. et al. d, Evaluation of scenario in a with 1:10 prevalence and increased sample number of the test dataset over 50 permutations. Article J.N. Rajkomar, A., Dean, J. 3b, Supplementary Information). All samples are biological replicates. Particularly in a global crisis6,7, reliable, fast, secure, confidentiality- and privacy-preserving AI solutions can facilitate answering important questions in the fight against such threats11,12,13. Peiffer-Smadja, N. et al. 8ej). SL outperformed each node in predicting all radiological findings included (atelectasis, effusion, infiltrationand no finding), which suggests that SL is also applicable to non-transcriptomic data spaces. and E.L.G. b, Evaluation of scenario in a for test accuracy over 100 permutations with a prevalence ratio of 1:1. c, Evaluation using a test dataset with prevalence ratio of 10:100 over 100 permutations. [37][53][54][38], The University of California San Francisco (UCSF) School of Medicine released a preprint in 2021 about the diagnosis of MRI images by small groups of collaborating doctors. Today the healthcare sector is facing challenges such as detecting the cause of ailments, disease prevention, high operating costs, availability of skilled technicians and infrastructure bottlenecks. In one such study, swarms of human radiologists connected together were tasked with diagnosing chest x-rays and demonstrated a 33% reduction in diagnostic errors as compared to the traditional human methods, and a 22% improvement over traditional machine-learning. Batch sizes of 8, 16, 32, 64 and 128 are used, depending on the number of training samples. The program can even alert a pilot of plane back-ups before they happen. n, Loss function of training and validation loss over 100 training epochs. 5 Scenario for ALL in dataset 2 and multi-class prediction and expansion of SL. Swarm learning: Turn your distributed data into a competitive edge. Artificial 'ants'simulation agentslocate optimal solutions by moving through a parameter space representing all possible solutions. h, Evaluation of test accuracy for scenario shown in g over 100 permutations for dataset A2. Konen, J. et al. The Swarm Learning environment was developed by S. Manamohan, Saikat Mukherjee, V.G., R.S., M.D., B.M., S.C., M.S.W., and E.L.G. Swarm Learning is a decentralized, privacy-preserving Machine Learning framework. 1l). Council of Europe: Convention for the Protection of Individuals with Regard to Automatic Processing of Personal Data. 8c), but F1 scores deteriorated only when we reduced prevalence further (1:44 ratio) (Extended Data Fig. Funding was acquired by H.S., S.K., D.P., M.A., J.R., S.K.-H., J.N., A.K., R.B., P.N., O.R., P.R., M.G.N., F.T., E.J.G.-B, M.B., S.C., and J.L.S. Main settings are as in Fig. Sometimes referred to as Human Swarming or Swarm AI, the technology connects groups of human participants into real-time systems that deliberate and converge on solutions as dynamic swarms when simultaneously presented with a question[32][33][34] ASI has been used for a wide range of applications, from enabling business teams to generate highly accurate financial forecasts[35] to enabling sports fans to outperform Vegas betting markets. Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. d, Comparison of central model with SL over 100 permutations. . j, Development of accuracy over training epochs with addition of new nodes. When we tested outbreak scenarios with very few cases at test nodes and varying prevalence at the independent test node (Fig. The concept is employed in work on artificial intelligence. Swarm Learning for decentralized and confidential clinical machine learning. Get the most important science stories of the day, free in your inbox. [56] These grammars interact as agents behaving according to rules of swarm intelligence. In brief, all raw data files were downloaded from GEO (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/geo/) and the RNA-seq data were preprocessed using the kallisto v0.43.1 aligner against the human reference genome gencode v27 (GRCh38.p10). Right, test accuracy, sensitivity and specificity for nodes and Swarm over 10 permutations. In a first proof-of-principle study, we simulated an outbreak situation node with evenly distributed cases and controls at training nodes and test nodes (Extended Data Fig. simply means using the knowledge of collective objects (people, insects, etc.) Nature 542, 115118 (2017). 2b). The images or other third party material in this article are included in the articles Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. Evolutionary algorithms (EA), particle swarm optimization (PSO), differential evolution (DE), ant colony optimization (ACO) and their variants dominate the field of nature-inspired metaheuristics. The swarms move throughout the digital canvas in an attempt to satisfy their dynamic rolesattention to areas with more detailsassociated with them via their fitness function. e, Evaluation using dataset A3 for 100 permutations. LeCun, Y., Bengio, Y. P.R. g, Evaluation of scenario in e with reduced prevalence over 50 permutations. We hypothesized that completely decentralized AI solutions would overcome current shortcomings, and accommodate inherently decentral data structures and data privacy and security regulations in medicine. The Lord of the Rings film trilogy made use of similar technology, known as Massive (software), during battle scenes. Published 27 November 1995. Thus, its concept is adapted from natural causes . With high mobility, low cost and outstanding maneuverability properties, unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) swarm has attracted worldwide attentions in both academia and industry. D.P. 2, 305311 (2020). When looking at performance on testing samples split by centre of origin, it became clear that individual centre nodes could not have predicted samples from other centres (Extended Data Fig. Metaheuristics lack a confidence in a solution. Centre dot, mean; box limits, 1st and 3rd quartiles; whiskers, minimum and maximum values. a, Different group settings used with assignment of latent TB to control or case. [7] as a special case of the boids model introduced in 1986 by Reynolds. Federated learning: strategies for improving communication efficiency. In: K. Goldberg, H. Knight, P. Salvini (Ed. Extended Data Fig. d, As in b for a 1:44 ratio. Google Scholar. Performance measures are defined for the independent fourth node used for testing only. 1fh) in three datasets (A1A3, comprising two types of microarray and RNA sequencing (RNA-seq))3. c, Scenario in which the training nodes have evenly distributed numbers of cases and controls at each training node, but node 2 has fewer samples; 50 permutations. d, Evaluation of c showing AUC, accuracy, sensitivity, specificity and F1 score of 20 permutations. E.J.G.-B. Peer reviewer reports are available. The test dataset is evenly distributed. d, Evaluation using a test dataset with prevalence ratio of 5:100 over 100 permutations. l, Scenario as in Fig. Training node 3 and the test node have a 50%/50% split. Swarm intelligence, applied to robotics, is an emerging field of AI inspired by the behavioural models of social insects (ants, bees, wasps). Conceptually, if sufficient data and computer infrastructure are available locally, machine learning can be performed locally (Fig. Data from independent clinical studies are samples to each node, as described for AML in Fig. This can be achieved by individual nodes sharing parameters (weights) derived from training the model on the local data. The healthy RNA-seq data included from Saarbrcken are available on application from PPMI through the LONI data archive at https://www.ppmi-info.org/data. SL should be explored for image-based diagnosis of COVID-19 from patterns in X-ray images or CT scans15,16, structured health records12, or data from wearables for disease tracking12. ); and by HPE to the DZNE for generating whole blood transcriptome data from patients with COVID-19. 1k, Supplementary Table 6). Proc. d, Evaluation of test accuracy for 100 permutations of dataset A1 per node and SL. Kaissis, G. A., Makowski, M. R., Rckert, D. & Braren, R. F. Secure, privacy-preserving and federated machine learning in medical imaging. There are two test datasets (f, g). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-021-03583-3, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-021-03583-3. Each agent maintains a hypothesis that is iteratively tested by evaluating a randomly selected partial objective function parameterised by the agent's current hypothesis. Internet Explorer). 2ce). These authors contributed equally: Stefanie Warnat-Herresthal, Hartmut Schultze, Krishnaprasad Lingadahalli Shastry, Sathyanarayanan Manamohan, Saikat Mukherjee, Vishesh Garg, Ravi Sarveswara, Kristian Hndler, Peter Pickkers, N. Ahmad Aziz, Sofia Ktena, These authors jointly supervised this work: Monique M. B. Breteler, Evangelos J. Giamarellos-Bourboulis, Matthijs Kox, Matthias Becker, Sorin Cheran, Michael S. Woodacre, Eng Lim Goh, Joachim L. Schultze, Systems Medicine, Deutsches Zentrum fr Neurodegenerative Erkrankungen (DZNE), Bonn, Germany, Stefanie Warnat-Herresthal,Kristian Hndler,Lorenzo Bonaguro,Jonas Schulte-Schrepping,Elena De Domenico,Michael Kraut,Anna Drews,Melanie Nuesch-Germano,Heidi Theis,Anna C. Aschenbrenner,Thomas Ulas,Matthias Becker&Joachim L. Schultze, Genomics and Immunoregulation, Life & Medical Sciences (LIMES) Institute, University of Bonn, Bonn, Germany, Stefanie Warnat-Herresthal,Lorenzo Bonaguro,Jonas Schulte-Schrepping,Melanie Nuesch-Germano,Anna C. Aschenbrenner,Thomas Ulas,Mariam L. Sharaf&Joachim L. Schultze, Hewlett Packard Enterprise, Houston, TX, USA, Hartmut Schultze,Krishnaprasad Lingadahalli Shastry,Sathyanarayanan Manamohan,Saikat Mukherjee,Vishesh Garg,Ravi Sarveswara,Christian Siever,Milind Desai,Bruno Monnet,Charles Martin Siegel,Sorin Cheran,Michael S. Woodacre&Eng Lim Goh, PRECISE Platform for Single Cell Genomics and Epigenomics, Deutsches Zentrum fr Neurodegenerative Erkrankungen (DZNE) and the University of Bonn, Bonn, Germany, Kristian Hndler,Elena De Domenico,Michael Kraut,Anna Drews,Heidi Theis,Anna C. Aschenbrenner,Matthias Becker&Joachim L. Schultze, Department of Intensive Care Medicine and Radboud Center for Infectious Diseases (RCI), Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, The Netherlands, Population Health Sciences, Deutsches Zentrum fr Neurodegenerative Erkrankungen (DZNE), Bonn, Germany, Department of Neurology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Bonn, Bonn, Germany, 4th Department of Internal Medicine, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Medical School, Athens, Greece, Sofia Ktena,Maria Saridaki&Evangelos J. Giamarellos-Bourboulis, Department of Internal Medicine I, Christian-Albrechts-University and University Hospital Schleswig-Holstein, Kiel, Germany, Institute of Clinical Molecular Biology, Christian-Albrechts-University and University Hospital Schleswig-Holstein, Kiel, Germany, Florian Tran,Neha Mishra,Joana P. Bernardes,Philip Rosenstiel&Sren Franzenburg, Department of Internal Medicine I, University Hospital, University of Tbingen, Tbingen, Germany, Institute of Medical Genetics and Applied Genomics, University of Tbingen, Tbingen, Germany, Stephan Ossowski,Nicolas Casadei,Olaf Rie,Daniela Bezdan&Yogesh Singh, NGS Competence Center Tbingen, Tbingen, Germany, Stephan Ossowski,Nicolas Casadei,Olaf Rie,Angel Angelov,Daniela Bezdan,Julia-Stefanie Frick,Gisela Gabernet,Marie Gauder,Janina Geiert,Sven Nahnsen,Silke Peter,Yogesh Singh&Michael Sonnabend, Department of Internal Medicine V, Saarland University Hospital, Homburg, Germany, Department of Pediatrics, Dr. von Hauner Childrens Hospital, University Hospital LMU Munich, Munich, Germany, Daniel Petersheim,Sarah Kim-Hellmuth&Christoph Klein, Childrens Hospital, Medical Faculty, Technical University Munich, Munich, Germany, Clinical Bioinformatics, Saarland University, Saarbrcken, Germany, Fabian Kern,Tobias Fehlmann&Andreas Keller, Department I of Internal Medicine, Faculty of Medicine and University Hospital of Cologne, University of Cologne, Cologne, Germany, Philipp Schommers,Clara Lehmann,Max Augustin&Jan Rybniker, Center for Molecular Medicine Cologne (CMMC), University of Cologne, Cologne, Germany, Clara Lehmann,Max Augustin&Jan Rybniker, German Center for Infection Research (DZIF), Partner Site Bonn-Cologne, Cologne, Germany, Clara Lehmann,Max Augustin,Jan Rybniker&Janne Vehreschild, Cologne Center for Genomics, West German Genome Center, University of Cologne, Cologne, Germany, Clinical Infectious Diseases, Research Center Borstel and German Center for Infection Research (DZIF), Partner Site Hamburg-Lbeck-Borstel-Riems, Borstel, Germany, Benjamin Krmer,Jan Heyckendorf&Adam Grundhoff, Department of Internal Medicine I, University Hospital Bonn, Bonn, Germany, German Center for Infection Research (DZIF), Braunschweig, Germany, Department of Internal Medicine II - Cardiology/Pneumology, University of Bonn, Bonn, Germany, Institute of Human Genetics, Medical Faculty, RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany, Department of Neurology and Neurological Sciences, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA, Department of Internal Medicine and Radboud Center for Infectious Diseases (RCI), Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, The Netherlands, Immunology & Metabolism, Life and Medical Sciences (LIMES) Institute, University of Bonn, Bonn, Germany, Institute of Computational Biology, Helmholtz Center Munich (HMGU), Neuherberg, Germany, Statistics and Machine Learning, Deutsches Zentrum fr Neurodegenerative Erkrankungen (DZNE), Bonn, Germany, CISPA Helmholtz Center for Information Security, Saarbrcken, Germany, Institute for Medical Biometry, Informatics and Epidemiology (IMBIE), Faculty of Medicine, University of Bonn, Bonn, Germany, Department of Cardiology, Angiology and Intensive Care Medicine, University Hospital RWTH Aachen, Aachen, Germany, Institute of Pathology & Department of Nephrology, University Hospital RWTH Aachen, Aachen, Germany, Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, University Hospital RWTH Aachen, Aachen, Germany, Institute for Biology I, RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany, Department of Hematology, Oncology, Hemostaseology and Stem Cell Transplantation, Medical School, RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany, Julia Carolin Stingl&Gnther Schmalzing, Department of Diagnostic and Interventional Radiology, University Hospital RWTH Aachen, Aachen, Germany, Institute of Medical Informatics, University Hospital RWTH Aachen, Aachen, Germany, Department of Intensive Care, University Hospital RWTH Aachen, Aachen, Germany, Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Medical Faculty Aachen, RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany, Molecular Oncology Group, Institute of Pathology, Medical Faculty, RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany, RWTH centralized Biomaterial Bank (RWTH cBMB) of the Medical Faculty, RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany, Department of Internal Medicine I, University Hospital RWTH Aachen, Aachen, Germany, Department of Pneumology and Intensive Care Medicine, University Hospital RWTH Aachen, Aachen, Germany, Institute of Medical Microbiology and Hygiene, University of Tbingen, Tbingen, Germany, Angel Angelov,Julia-Stefanie Frick,Janina Geiert,Silke Peter&Michael Sonnabend, Geomicrobiology, German Research Centre for Geosciences (GFZ), Potsdam, Germany, LOEWE Center for Synthetic Microbiology (SYNMIKRO), Philipps-Universitt Marburg, Marburg, Germany, Institute for Medical Virology and Epidemiology of Viral Diseases, University of Tbingen, Tbingen, Germany, Daniela Bezdan,Tina Ganzenmueller,Thomas Iftner&Angelika Iftner, Fraunhofer Institute for Cell Therapy and Immunology (IZI), Leipzig, Germany, Conny Blumert,Friedemann Horn&Kristin Reiche, Center for Regenerative Therapies Dresden (CRTD), Dresden, Germany, European Molecular Biology Laboratory (EMBL), Heidelberg, Germany, DSMZ - German Collection of Microorganisms and Cell Cultures, Leibniz Institute, Braunschweig, Germany, Gene Center - Functional Genomics Analysis, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universitt Mnchen, Mnchen, Germany, Institute for Medical Microbiology, University Hospital Aachen, RWTH Aachen, Germany, European Research Institute for the Biology of Ageing, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands, TUM School of Life Sciences Weihenstephan, Technical University of Munich, Freising, Germany, Klinik fr Gastroenterologie, Hepatologie und Endokrinologie, Medizinische Hochschule Hannover (MHH), Hannover, Germany, Centre for Individualised Infection Medicine (CiiM), Hannover, Germany, German Center for Infection Research (DZIF), Hannover, Germany, Genome Analysis Center, Helmholtz Zentrum Mnchen Deutsches Forschungszentrum fr Gesundheit und Umwelt, Neuherberg, Germany, Institut fr Mikrobiologie und Infektionsimmunologie, Charit Universittsmedizin Berlin, Berlin, Germany, Institut fr Medizinische Mikrobiologie und Krankenhaushygiene, Universittsklinikum Dsseldorf, Heinrich-Heine-Universitt Dsseldorf, Dsseldorf, Germany, Institut fr Medizinische Mikrobiologie, Virologie und Hygiene, Universittsklinikum Hamburg- Eppendorf (UKE), Hamburg, Germany, German Information Centre for Life Sciences (ZB MED), Cologne, Germany, Quantitative Biology Center, University of Tbingen, Tbingen, Germany, Gisela Gabernet,Marie Gauder&Sven Nahnsen, Informatik 29 - Computational Molecular Medicine, Technische Universitt Mnchen, Mnchen, Germany, Bioinformatics and Systems Biology, Justus Liebig University Giessen, Giessen, Germany, Leibniz Institut fr Experimentelle Virologie, Hamburg, Germany, Institute for Infection Prevention and Hospital Hygiene, Universittsklinikum Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany, Institute of Medical Microbiology, Justus Liebig University Giessen, Giessen, Germany, Krankenhaushygiene und Infektiologie, Universittsklinikum Regensburg, Regensburg, Germany, Zentrum fr Humangenetik Regensburg, Regensburg, Germany, Institute of Human Genetics, University of Bonn, School of Medicine & University Hospital Bonn, Bonn, Germany, Andr Heimbach,Kerstin U. Ludwig&Markus Nthen, Klinik fr Pneumonologie, Medizinische Hochschule Hannover (MHH), Hannover, Germany, Computational Oncology, Molecular Diagnostics Program, National Center for Tumor Diseases (NCT) Heidelberg and German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany, Heidelberg Institute for Stem Cell Technology and Experimental Medicine (HI-STEM), Heidelberg, Germany, German Cancer Consortium (DKTK), Heidelberg, Germany, Institute for Pathology, Molecular Pathology, Charit Universittsmedizin Berlin, Berlin, Germany, German Biobank Node (bbmri.de), Berlin, Germany, Medizinische Hochschule Hannover (MHH), Hannover Unified Biobank and Institute of Human Genetics, Hannover, Germany, Algorithmic Bioinformatics, Justus Liebig University Giessen, Giessen, Germany, Center for Biotechnology (CeBiTec), Bielefeld University, Bielefeld, Germany, Jrn Kalinowski,Alfred Phler&Alexander Sczyrba, Department of Environmental Microbiology, Helmholtz-Zentrum fr Umweltforschung (UFZ), Leipzig, Germany, Algorithmische Bioinformatik, RCI Regensburger Centrum fr Interventionelle Immunologie, Universittsklinikum Regensburg, Regensburg, Germany, Max von Pettenkofer Institute & Gene Center, Virology, National Reference Center for Retroviruses, LMU Mnchen, Munich, Germany, German Center for Infection Research (DZIF), partner site Munich, Mnchen, Germany, Center for Molecular Biology (ZMBH), Heidelberg University, Heidelberg, Germany, Cell Morphogenesis and Signal Transduction, German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany, Applied Bioinformatics, University of Tbingen, Tbingen, Germany, Translational Bioinformatics, University Hospital, University of Tbingen, Tbingen, Germany, Genomics & Transcriptomics Labor (GTL), Universittsklinikum Dsseldorf, Heinrich-Heine-Universitt Dsseldorf, Dsseldorf, Germany, Medical Clinic Internal Medicine VII, University Hospital, University of Tbingen, Tbingen, Germany, Transmission, Infection, Diversification and Evolution Group, Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History, Jena, Germany, Berlin Institute for Medical Systems Biology, Max Delbrck Center for Molecular Medicine in the Helmholtz Association (MDC), Berlin, Germany, Centre for Individualized Infection Medicine (CiiM) & TWINCORE, joint ventures between the Helmholtz-Centre for Infection Research (HZI) and the Hannover Medical School (MHH), Hannover, Germany, Institute for Infection Medicine and Hospital Hygiene (IIMK), Uniklinikum Jena, Jena, Germany, Michael Stifel Center Jena, Jena, Germany, Bioinformatics/High-Throughput Analysis, Faculty of Mathematics and Computer Science, Friedrich-Schiller-Universitt Jena, Jena, Germany, Computational Biology for Infection Research, Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research (HZI), Brunswick, Germany, Institute for Tropical Medicine, University Hospital, University of Tbingen, Tbingen, Germany, Francine Ntoumi&Thirumalaisamy P. Velavan, Biotechnology Center (BIOTEC) TU Dresden, National Center for Tumor Diseases, Dresden, Germany, Institute of Virology, Technical University of Munich, Munich, Germany, Institute of Biochemistry, Charit Universittsmedizin Berlin, Berlin, Germany, Department of Psychiatry and Neurosciences, Charit Universittsmedizin Berlin, Berlin, Germany, Helmholtz Institute for RNA-based Infection Research (HIRI), Helmholtz-Center for Infection Research, Wrzburg, Germany, Department of Internal Medicine with emphasis on Infectiology, Respiratory-, and Critical-Care-Medicine, Charit Universittsmedizin Berlin, Berlin, Germany, Institute of Medical Immunology, Charit Universittsmedizin Berlin, Berlin, Germany, Institute of Infection Control and Infectious Diseases, University Medical Center, Georg August University, Gttingen, Germany, Institute of Zoology, University of Cologne, Cologne, Germany, Institute of Clinical Chemistry and Clinical Pharmacology, University Hospital, University of Bonn, Bonn, Germany, Klinik fr Psychiatrie und Psychotherapie and Institut fr Psychiatrische Phnomik und Genomik, LMU Mnchen, Munich, Germany, Division of Computational Genomics and Systems Genetics, German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany, Genome Informatics, University of Bielefeld, Bielefeld, Germany, Department I of Internal Medicine, University Hospital of Cologne, University of Cologne, Cologne, Germany, University Hospital Frankfurt, Frankfurt am Main, Germany, Institute for Bioinformatics, Freie Universitt Berlin, Berlin, Germany, Institut fr Virologie, Universittsklinikum Dsseldorf, Heinrich-Heine-Universitt Dsseldorf, Dsseldorf, Germany, Genetics and Epigenetics, Saarland University, Saarbrcken, Germany, Institut fr Humangenetik, Universittsklinikum Dsseldorf, Heinrich-Heine-Universitt Dsseldorf, Dsseldorf, Germany, Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Dresden, Germany and DRESDEN concept Genome Center, TU Dresden, Dresden, Germany, Institute of Medical Virology, Justus Liebig University Giessen, Giessen, Germany, You can also search for this author in

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